CDC Reports on Intimate-Partner Violence

The full title of the CDC's report gives an accurate picture of the report's focus on intimate-partner violence "(IPV"): Intimate Partner Violence and Pregnancy and Infant Health Outcomes — Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, Nine U.S. Jurisdictions, 2016–2022 (Dec. 5, 2025). 

The implications of IPV for public health, maternal health, and infant health are far-reaching, complex, and difficult to solve. Here's a snapshot of this important report:

Summary

What is already known about this topic?

Intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy is a preventable cause of injury and death with negative short- and long-term impacts for pregnant women, infants, and families.

What is added by this report?

During 2016–2022, among women with a live birth in nine jurisdictions, 5.4% experienced IPV during pregnancy. Emotional IPV (5.2%) was more common than physical (1.5%) and sexual (1.0%) IPV. All IPV types were associated with delayed or no prenatal care, depression and substance use during pregnancy, and low infant birth weight.

What are the implications for public health practice?

Addressing multiple IPV types through comprehensive prevention efforts is critical to supporting maternal and infant health.

Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) can include emotional, physical, or sexual violence. IPV during pregnancy is a preventable cause of injury and death with negative short- and long-term impacts for pregnant women, infants, and families. Using data from the 2016–2022 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System in nine U.S. jurisdictions, CDC examined associations between IPV during pregnancy among women with a recent live birth and the following outcomes: prenatal care initiation, health conditions during pregnancy (gestational diabetes, pregnancy-related hypertension, and depression), substance use during pregnancy, and infant birth outcomes. Overall, 5.4% of women reported IPV during pregnancy. Emotional IPV was most prevalent (5.2%), followed by physical (1.5%) and sexual (1.0%) IPV. All types were associated with delayed or no prenatal care; depression during pregnancy; cigarette smoking, alcohol use, marijuana or illicit substance use during pregnancy; and having an infant with low birth weight. Physical, sexual, and any IPV were associated with having a preterm birth. Physical IPV was associated with pregnancy-related hypertension. Evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies that address multiple types of IPV are important for supporting healthy parents and families because they might reduce pregnancy complications, depression and substance use during pregnancy, and adverse infant outcomes.

As a side note, this report is an example of the sort of data collection and dissemination that may be at risk in the Trump administration. It appears that the president-elect's advisors, as well as members of Congress, are looking to cut the CDC's budget and scale back some of its public-health activities. I hope cooler heads will prevail, but "Hope is that thing with feathers." 

The Bump Stock Case: Is SCOTUS a Public Health Menace (Part II)?

The latest blockbuster decision from SCOTUS is "the bump stock case," Garland v. Cargill, U.S. No. 22-976 (June 14). There isn't much to add to the voluminous media coverage of this case, in which the six conservatives on the Court struck down a 2018 BATF regulation that banned bump stocks because they turned semiautomatic rifles into machineguns, which Congress severely restricted in 1934 (see definition of machinegun in National Firearms Act of 1934, 26 U. S. C. §5845(b)). The majority (in a highly technical and narrow decision by Justice Thomas*) disagreed with BATF and held that bump-stock-equipped rifles are not machineguns. To be fair, the Obama administration came to the same conclusion when it decided against a regulation that would have classified bump-stock-equipped rifles as machineguns. 

Writing for the three liberal justices in dissent, Justice Sotomayor wrote:

A machinegun does not fire itself.  The important question under the statute is how a person can fire it.  A weapon is a “machinegun” when a shooter can (1) “by a single function of the trigger,” (2) shoot “automatically more than one shot, without manually reloading.”  26 U. S. C. §5845(b).  The plain language of that definition refers most obviously to a rifle like an M16, where a single pull of the trigger provides continuous fire as long as the shooter maintains backward pressure on the trigger.  The definition of “machinegun” also includes “any part designed and intended . . . for use in converting a weapon into a machinegun.”  Ibid.  That language naturally covers devices like bump stocks, which “conver[t]” semiautomatic rifles so that a single pull of the trigger provides continuous fire as long as the shooter maintains forward pressure on the gun. 

This is not a hard case.  All of the textual evidence points to the same interpretation.  A bump-stock-equipped semiautomatic rifle is a machinegun because (1) with a single pull of the trigger, a shooter can (2) fire continuous shots without any human input beyond maintaining forward pressure.  The majority looks to the internal mechanism that initiates fire, rather than the human act of the shooter’s initial pull, to hold that a “single function of the trigger” means a reset of the trigger mechanism.  Its interpretation requires six diagrams and an animation to decipher the meaning of the statutory text.  Then, shifting focus from the internal mechanism of the gun to the perspective of the shooter, the majority holds that continuous forward pressure is too much human input for bump-stock-enabled continuous fire to be “automatic.” [emphasis added]

Justice Sotomayor rejects the majority's technical analysis with her customary flair:

Today, the Court puts bump stocks back in civilian hands.  To do so, it casts aside Congress’s definition of “machinegun” and seizes upon one that is inconsistent with the ordinary meaning of the statutory text and unsupported by context or purpose.  When I see a bird that walks like a duck, swims like a duck, and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck.  A bump-stock-equipped semiautomatic rifle fires “automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger.”  §5845(b).  Because I, like Congress, call that a machinegun, I respectfully dissent. 

At a minimum, doesn't the 6-3 split in this case suggest that it's plausible -- even reasonable --  to define bump-stock-enhanced rifles as machineguns, even if there is a plausible -- even reasonable -- contrary argument? Given the room for argument, isn't this just the sort of case in which generalist judges, with or without technical drawings and a video, should defer to the expertise of the agency (with or without Chevron)?

Last Father's Day, I posted about the Supreme Court's obstinate Second Amendment jurisprudence ("2nd Amendment thoughts -- The Constitution is not a suicide pact (or is it?)" (June 18, 2023).) Breaking no new ground whatsoever, I wrote that gun violence is not only a criminal-justice matter, it's also a matter of public health law. The statistics are stunning. So far this year, there have been 225 mass shootings in this country. Granted, few if any involved a bump-stock-equipped rifle, but the 2017 shooting at a Las Vegas music festival (in which 58 people were killed and over 500 injured by a shooter using weapons enhanced by bump stocks) demonstrates the lethality of bump stocks. And with over 700,000 of these things already in circulation (ABC News (June 14, 2024)), to build on Justice Sotomayor's analogy, we are all sitting ducks. 

So this Father's Day, I revisit the issue of gun violence and ask last year's question one more time: Don't we owe more to our children (and their children) than a world in which assault rifles are legal in 40 states and anyone with a driver's license can turn their assault rifle into a machinegun?

____________________

* There is a random connection between machineguns (especially the Thompson machinegun) and Dallas. The father of the late Cary Maguire -- Dallas oilman and philanthropist par excellence -- supplied Allied forces with the Tommy gun during WWII:

NY Times, Nov. 11, 1966 (obituary, J. Russell Maguire, (behind a paywall)).

Biden's State of the Union Address: 13 Health Care Take-aways

Becker's Hospital Review takes a look at "13 healthcare takeaways" from President Biden's State of the Union address last evening. They include:

1. Expanding Medicare's drug price negotiation scope
2. Limiting drug costs
3. Expanding rebate requirement
4. Closing Medicaid coverage gap [for 10 states, including Texas, that haven't expanded eligibility]
5. Capping the cost of insulin
6. Abortion access
7. COVID-19
8. Affordable Care Act
9. Women's health
10. Taxes
11. Gun violence
12. PACT Act [Resources for Veterans]
13. ARPA-H (Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health ) 

Top Four Kick-the-Can Issues in Health Care

Becker's is an incredible daily resource through various newsletters aimed at hospital management, CFO's, and policy makers. From their vantage, they have a good feel for the recurring issues that government ignores and that might yield at least somewhat to public-private partnerships. Here are their top four:

1. Hospital closures. It seems lawmakers only start to take notice of hospital financial solvency when closure announcements are made. Lost in this 11th-hour dynamic is concern for patient safety and care quality. The closure of a hospital is one thing. But just as important — and often neglected — is scrutiny of the quality of care patients receive in the period leading up to the announcement of closure. 

2. Hospital staff safety. The Safety from Violence for Healthcare Employees Act was introduced in the House last April and in the Senate last September. The bipartisan legislation would make it a federal crime to knowingly assault hospital workers and enact federal protections for healthcare workers like those in effect for aircraft and airport workers. 

Since the legislation's introduction, individual acts of violence in hospitals continue to unfold and make headlines as more longitudinal data is released showing just how much more hostile healthcare settings have become. More than double the number of health workers reported harassment at work in 2022 than in 2018, including threats, bullying, verbal abuse, or other actions from patients and co-workers that create a hostile work environment, according to CDC data. More than 5,200 nursing personnel were assaulted in the second quarter of 2022, according to data from Press Ganey, amounting to about 57 assaults per day. 

3. Healthcare workforce shortages. Much attention is paid to technology solutions and AI support systems to augment the healthcare staff and workers who are in short supply. But look more closely, and the foundation of data about the U.S. workforce looks like Swiss cheese. 

There are more than 8,300 designated primary care shortage areas in the U.S., and nearly 200 of them have been federally designated as such for at least 40 years. This finding stems from an analysis that KFF Health News published last month. One area on the far south side of Chicago has been designated as a shortage area since 1978. Another area in the Baton Rouge metro area in Louisiana, has been named a shortage area since 1979, most recently with 22 full-time primary care physicians for nearly 140,000 people. 

4. Hospital cybersecurity. Becker's covered one of the earliest hospital ransomware attacks on a small hospital in Kentucky in 2016. Methodist Hospital in Henderson, Ky., operated in an internal state of emergency for five days and did not pay the ransom. Since, we've seen cybergangs and criminals grow more savvy, emboldened and nefarious in their targeting of hospitals. Health system ransomware attacks nearly doubled in 2023, with 141 U.S. hospitals affected last year and data stolen in 32 of 46 of the events. 

These attacks can wreak havoc and cause harm to entire healthcare infrastructures across state lines. Last November, the hack of 30-hospital Ardent Health Services, based in Nashville, Tenn., caused ambulances to be diverted across six states. The actors behind these attacks have also grown more cruel, hitting children's hospitals (most recently Lurie Children's, a level 1 pediatric trauma center in Chicago), demanding $900,000 from a safety-net hospital in 48 hours, publishing data about hospital staff, or activating other hospital equipment mid-attack.

"Violence Against Healthcare Workers is a Silent Epidemic"

From Becker's Hospital Review (Jan. 24): 

In 2023, Cleveland Clinic saw a record 14 million patients — and took 30,000 weapons from those patients and their visitors. 

Tomislav Mihaljevic, MD, president, CEO and Morton L. Mandel CEO Chair of Cleveland Clinic, delivered the statistic during the system's annual "State of the Clinic" address Jan. 24. 

He did not specify what sorts of weapons were confiscated, but for comparison, the Transportation Security Administration confiscated a record 6,737 firearms at airport security checkpoints last year. 

Cleveland Clinic, which employs 81,000 people across 300 global locations, was designed to be an "optimal work environment," Dr. Mihaljevic said: engaging, rewarding, inclusive and safe. 

But workers' safety was threatened thousands of times last year, with caregivers reporting 3,800 incidents of physical and verbal violence. 

In addition to installing magnetometers in every emergency department — allowing the health system to confiscate tens of thousands of weapons — Cleveland Clinic is continuing to bolster its police and security presence and is providing de-escalation training for caregivers, Dr. Mihaljevic said. 

The most recent data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicated that in 2021, healthcare and social services industry workers recorded 453,200 nonfatal injuries — more than any other industry. In response to rising rates of violence, some organizations are adopting codes of conduct for patients and families. And in September, the Senate introduced a bill that would make it a federal crime to knowingly assault a hospital worker; offenders could face up to 20 years in prison. 

"Violence against healthcare workers is a silent epidemic," Dr. Mihaljevic said. "Violence will never be accepted as a part of our job."

Labor Day Weekend Post #1: Hospitals Need to Do More to Protect Workers from Rudeness

There's a growing sense out there that we are experiencing a worldwide uptick in rudeness, probably brought on or at least exacerbated by COVID-related stress and isolation. It's a labor-and-employment issue for hospital managers, who have also seen an increase in workplace violence. Becker's Hospital Report picked up on a recent post in The Atlantic by Olgha Khazan in March 2022 ("Why People Are Acting So Weird") (may be free, but might be behind a paywall).

Mass General Brigham exemplifies the way back and the problem, in that order. They have enacted an explicit code of conduct for patients (and visitors?) to protect employees from rude and discriminatory behavior. Good. But: "On rare occasions, patients who violate this code may be asked to seek care elsewhere, the Somerville, Mass.-based health system said." On rare occasions . . . may be asked. Presumably only the worst behaviors will provoke the administrators to use the policies on their books to address unacceptable conduct.

The problem is a messy one. Hospitals tend to be places that can, and often do, bring out the worst in people. Pain, uncertainty, anxiety, loss of control . . . some folks deal with these stressors by lashing out. Health care professionals typical try to counsel patients and families unless there's a credible threat of violence. And safety-net hospitals are often loathe to evict patients because these institutions are the only option the patients have. 

On the other hand, a marked increase in rude and threatening and violent behaviors can't be treated in a business-as-usual manner. COVID-related stress and isolation is everywhere. We all need to have effective coping mechanisms. Hospitals are no different. 

U.S. Child and Teen Firearm Mortality is Off the Chart. Literally.

Following up on my Father's Day post about firearms.  The Kaiser Family Foundation has released a new issue brief: "Child and Teen Firearm Mortality in the U.S. and Peer Countries". One graphic tells the story:

It's the #1 cause of death (by a pretty wide margin) for minors (ages 1-17), ahead of motor vehicles, cancer, and all other causes.

It's a short paper with an important message. The concluding paragraph raises an issue that doesn't get a lot of coverage in the popular press:

Exposure and use of firearms also have implications for mental health. Research suggests that youth may experience symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety in response to gun violence. Specifically, survivors of firearm-related injuries, including youth survivors, may be at increased risk of mental health conditions and substance use disorders. Furthermore, gun violence disproportionately affects many children of color, particularly Black children, and children living in areas with a high concentration of poverty.

This is a public health issue and ought to be understood as a public health law issue as well. When will legislatures wake up?

Violent attacks on hospital staff: What's the solution?

The reports of violent attacks on doctors and nurses in hospitals, clinics, medical offices, and other health care settings keep coming in. From The Hospitalist (Mar. 1, 2023):

Even before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, health care workers suffered more workplace injuries as a result of violence than any other profession, with approximately 654,000 harmed annually, according to American Hospital Association studies. Since the pandemic began, violence against hospital employees alone has markedly increased. For example, 44% of nurses reported an increase in physical violence and 68% reported an increase in verbal abuse. (emphasis added)

The weapons tend to be knives and guns. Maybe it's a sign of the times, with random violence increasing all around us each year, there seems to be a steady stream of stories of violent attacks against health care personnel. (See, e.g., American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (blog)). I have further thoughts, but first, consider a recent example: "Man charged in fatal shooting of Tennessee surgeon" (Becker's Hospital Review, July 13). The shooter had reportedly been seen in this orthopedic surgery clinic earlier in the day, returned to the clinic, and shot the orthopedic surgeon.

It goes without saying that violence against doctors, nurses, and other health care workers simply shouldn't be a thing. We remember the political assassination of Dr. George Tiller 14 years ago while he was ushering in a worship service at his church in Wichita, Kansas. The killer was described as an "anti-abortion extremist." But much more violence and threats of violence occur every day in ordinary clinical settings. The work of clinical staff is performed with often emotionally fraught individuals (patients, family members), and then there are others with perceived grievances against the health care system or the world. The CDC has a useful list of risk factors:

The clinical setting is one of intensified emotions. Patients who are at risk of perpetrating violence include those who:

• are under the influence of drugs or alcohol
• are in pain
• have a history of violence
• have cognitive impairment
• are in the forensic (criminal justice) system
• are angry about clinical relationships, e.g., in response to perceived authoritarian attitude or excessive force used by the health provider
• have certain psychiatric diagnoses and/or medical diagnoses.

Clinics are designed to be open and welcoming, not armed fortresses. Doctors and nurses don't pack heat, and possession of a firearm on hospital property is universally prohibited (except in states where such prohibitions are themselves prohibited). They are vulnerable professionals -- first responders and health care workers -- who spend their careers comforting and healing. Violence is obscene and should be unthinkable in any workplace, including elementary schools, places of worship, and health care settings. 

There is no shortage of resources for dealing with violence in hospitals and clinics, including programs and best practices suggested or endorsed by the following:

• the American Hospital Association (Hospitals Against Violence; 2022 fact sheet)
• the federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (report)
• the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) (report)
• the Centers for Disease Prevention and Control (CDC) (course materials)

Health care settings are especially risky places to work, as many of the resources quoted and cited above establish. While we're at it, let's not forget the gun culture, the threat of which permeates every aspect of our lives. I wrote about this on Father's Day. The insanity has to stop.